Bibliography

Primary Islamic Sources

The foundational texts of the Islamic tradition from which the encyclopaedia draws its religious and historical content.

The Holy Quran

• The Noble Quran — All Quranic references cite surah and verse number (e.g., Quran 2:255). Translations consulted include Sahih International, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, and Muhammad Asad.

The Six Canonical Hadith Collections (Al-Kutub al-Sittah)

• Al-Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Ismail. Sahih al-Bukhari. Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 1997. [Original c. 846 CE]
• Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. Sahih Muslim. Translated by Abd al-Hamid Siddiqui. New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 2000. [Original c. 875 CE]
• Abu Dawud, Sulaiman ibn al-Ash'ath. Sunan Abu Dawud. Translated by Ahmad Hasan. New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 1990. [Original c. 889 CE]
• Al-Tirmidhi, Muhammad ibn Isa. Jami' al-Tirmidhi. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 2007. [Original c. 892 CE]
• Al-Nasa'i, Ahmad ibn Shu'ayb. Sunan al-Nasa'i. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 2007. [Original c. 915 CE]
• Ibn Majah, Muhammad ibn Yazid. Sunan Ibn Majah. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers, 2007. [Original c. 887 CE]

Other Hadith Collections

• Ibn Hanbal, Ahmad. Musnad Ahmad. Cairo: Mu'assasat Qurtubah, 1978. [Original c. 855 CE]
• Malik ibn Anas. Al-Muwatta. Translated by Aisha Bewley. London: Kegan Paul International, 1989. [Original c. 795 CE]

Classical Islamic Historians and Scholars

The medieval scholars whose historical chronicles, biographies, and analyses provide the primary narrative framework for Islamic history.

• Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk (History of the Prophets and Kings). Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1960. [Original c. 915 CE]
• Yar-Shater, Ehsan, ed. The History of al-Tabari. 40 vols. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985–2007. — the annotated English translation, cited in the articles volume by volume under its individual translators, among them William M. Brinner for Prophets and Patriarchs and The Children of Israel and G. R. Hawting for The First Civil War.
• Ibn Hisham, Abd al-Malik. Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah (The Prophetic Biography). [Original c. 833 CE]
• Al-Waqidi, Muhammad ibn Umar. Kitab al-Maghazi. Edited by Marsden Jones. London: Oxford University Press, 1966. [Original c. 823 CE]
• Ibn Kathir, Ismail ibn Umar. Al-Bidaya wa al-Nihaya (The Beginning and the End). 14 vols. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1986. [Original c. 1370 CE]
• Ibn Kathir, Ismail ibn Umar. Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets). Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 2003. [Original c. 1370 CE]
• Ibn al-Athir, Ali ibn Muhammad. Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh (The Complete History). 12 vols. Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1979. [Original c. 1231 CE]
• Ibn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman. Al-Muqaddimah (The Prolegomenon). Translated by Franz Rosenthal. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967. [Original c. 1377 CE]
• Ibn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman. Kitab al-Ibar wa Diwan al-Mubtada wa al-Khabar (Book of Lessons and Record of Beginnings and Events). 7 vols. Bulaq: Dar al-Taba'ah al-Amiriyyah, 1867. [Original c. 1377 CE]
• Al-Mas'udi, Ali ibn al-Husayn. Muruj al-Dhahab wa Ma'adin al-Jawhar (Meadows of Gold). Beirut: Dar al-Andalus, 1966. [Original c. 947 CE]
• Ibn Sa'd, Muhammad. Al-Tabaqat al-Kubra (The Great Classes). Leiden: Brill, 1904. [Original c. 845 CE]
• Al-Dhahabi, Shams al-Din. Siyar A'lam al-Nubala (Lives of Noble Figures). Beirut: Mu'assasat al-Risalah, 1981. [Original c. 1348 CE]
• Ibn Abd al-Barr, Yusuf. Al-Isti'ab fi Ma'rifat al-Ashab. Edited by Ali Muhammad al-Bajawi. Cairo: Nahdat Misr, 1960. [Compiled c. 1070 CE]
• Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani. Al-Isabah fi Tamyiz al-Sahabah. Cairo: Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyyah, 1972. [Original c. 1449 CE]
• Al-Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya. Futuh al-Buldan (Conquest of the Lands). Leiden: Brill, 1866. [Original c. 892 CE]
• Al-Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya. Ansab al-Ashraf (Genealogies of the Nobles). [Original c. 892 CE] — cited in the articles in several editions, according to the volume used.
• Al-Maqrizi, Ahmad ibn Ali. Al-Mawa'iz wa al-I'tibar (Topographical History of Egypt). Cairo: Bulaq Press, 1853. [Original c. 1440 CE]
• Al-Suyuti, Jalal al-Din. Tarikh al-Khulafa (History of the Caliphs). Cairo: Dar al-Fajr lil-Turath, 2004. [Original c. 1500 CE]
• Al-Tha'labi, Ahmad ibn Muhammad. Qisas al-Anbiya (Tales of the Prophets). Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, 2004. [Original c. 1035 CE]
• Al-Maqqari, Ahmad ibn Muhammad. Nafh al-Tib min Ghusn al-Andalus al-Ratib. Cairo: Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyyah, 1949. [Original c. 1629 CE]
• Al-Muqaddasi, Shams al-Din. Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma'rifat al-Aqalim. Leiden: Brill, 1877. [Original c. 985 CE]
• Ibn al-Nadim, Muhammad ibn Ishaq. Kitab al-Fihrist (The Catalogue). [Original c. 987 CE] Translated by Bayard Dodge as The Fihrist of al-Nadim: A Tenth-Century Survey of Muslim Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970.
• Ibn Jubayr, Muhammad ibn Ahmad. Rihlat Ibn Jubayr (The Travels of Ibn Jubayr). Leiden: Brill, 1907. [Original c. 1185 CE]
• Al-Qifti, Jamal al-Din. Tarikh al-Hukama (History of the Learned). Edited by Julius Lippert. Leipzig: Dieterich, 1903. [Original c. 1248 CE]
• Ibn Abi Usaybi'a, Ahmad ibn al-Qasim. Uyun al-Anba fi Tabaqat al-Atibba (Sources of Information on the Classes of Physicians). Edited by August Müller. Königsberg, 1884. [Original c. 1270 CE]
• Ibn Battuta, Muhammad ibn Abdullah. Tuhfat al-Nuzzar fi Ghara'ib al-Amsar wa Aja'ib al-Asfar (the Rihla). Dictated to Ibn Juzayy. Translated by H. A. R. Gibb. 5 vols. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1958–2000. [Original c. 1355 CE]
• Aşıkpaşazade. Tevârih-i Âl-i Osman (History of the House of Osman). Edited by Necdet Öztürk. Istanbul: Bilge Kültür Sanat, 2013. [Original late 15th century CE]
• Evliya Çelebi. Seyahatname (Book of Travels). [Original 17th century CE]
• Juzjani, Minhaj al-Siraj. Tabaqat-i Nasiri. Translated from the Persian by Major H. G. Raverty. 2 vols. London: Gilbert & Rivington, 1881. [Original c. 1260 CE] — the earliest sustained chronicle of the Ghaznavids, Ghurids and early Delhi sultans, used with Raverty's critical apparatus.
• Barani, Zia al-Din. Tarikh-i Firuz Shahi. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1862. [Original c. 1357 CE] — the fullest source for the Khalji sultanate, written by a member of the circle of Nizam al-Din Awliya.
• Amir Khurd, Muhammad ibn Mubarak Kirmani. Siyar al-Awliya. [Original 8th century AH / 14th century CE] — the earliest hagiography of the Chishti masters.
• Jami, Abd al-Rahman. Nafahat al-Uns. [Original 881 AH / 1476 CE] — the biographical compendium of Sufis of the eastern Islamic world.
• Amir Hasan Sijzi Dihlavi. Fawa'id al-Fu'ad. [Compiled 707–721 AH / 1307–1321 CE] — the recorded conversations of Nizam al-Din Awliya, kept by a disciple in his lifetime and the earliest genuine malfuz of the Chishti tradition.
• Jauhar Aftabchi. Tazkirat al-Waqi'at (the Tezkereh al Vakiat, Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun). Translated by Charles Stewart. London: Oriental Translation Fund, 1832. [Original 995 AH / 1587 CE] — the account of Humayun's reign written by his ewer-bearer (aftabchi), who set down the events he had witnessed himself.
• Bada'uni, Abd al-Qadir. Muntakhab al-Tawarikh. Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica, 1864–9. Translated by Ranking, Lowe and Haig. [Original c. 1595 CE] — written privately by a court imam who sat in Akbar's house of debate and worked on his translation programme, and the indispensable counterweight to the official history of the reign.
• Nizam al-Din Ahmad. Tabaqat-i Akbari. [Original c. 1594 CE] — used with the caution the Encyclopaedia of Islam records, its author having been a partisan of Akbar's uncle Askari.
• Abu'l-Fazl Allami. Akbarnama. Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica, 1873–87. Translated by H. Beveridge. 3 vols. [Original c. 1598 CE] — the official history of Akbar's reign, written by the emperor's own counsellor.
• Abu'l-Fazl Allami. Ain-i Akbari. Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica, 1867–77. Translated by H. Blochmann and H. S. Jarrett. [Original c. 1598 CE] — the third part of the Akbarnama, surveying the institutions, offices, revenues, provinces and learning of the empire, and the fullest description of any pre-modern Indian state.
• Firishta, Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah. Tarikh-i Firishta. [Original c. 1612 CE]
• Mu'tamad Khan. Iqbal-nama-i Jahangiri. Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica, 1865. [Original c. 1620 CE] — the chronicle that records Nur Jahan's titles, the coinage struck in her name and the joint signature on imperial farmans.
• Jahangir, Emperor. Tuzuk-i Jahangiri (also Waqi'at-i Jahangiri). Edited by Sayyid Ahmad Khan. Ghazipur, 1864. Translated by Alexander Rogers and Henry Beveridge. 2 vols. London, 1909 and 1914. [Original c. 1624 CE] — the emperor's own memoir of his reign, which sets down his twelve ordinances, the specification of his chain of justice and his own account of his drinking.
• Lahori, Abdul Hamid. Padshahnama (Badshah-nama). [Original c. 1648 CE] — the official chronicle of Shah Jahan's reign, and the source for the succession crisis that followed Jahangir's death.
• Saqi Mustad Khan. Maasir-i Alamgiri. Translated by Jadunath Sarkar. Calcutta: Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1947. [Original c. 1710 CE] — the official chronicle of Aurangzeb's reign.
• Shah Nawaz Khan, Samsam al-Dawla. Ma'athir al-Umara. Translated by H. Beveridge. [Original c. 1780 CE] — the biographical dictionary of the officers of the Mughal service.
• Elliot, H. M., and John Dowson, eds. The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians: The Muhammadan Period. 8 vols. London: Trübner, 1867–1877. — the translated compendium of the Indo-Persian chronicles. Volume VI carries the Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, the Iqbal-nama-i Jahangiri, the Ma'asir-i Jahangiri, the Intikhab-i Jahangir-Shahi and the Wiqaya of Asad Beg, collated against one another by the editor, and is the fullest gathering of primary material for the Mughal period used in these articles.

Quranic Exegesis (Tafsir)

• Ibn Kathir, Ismail ibn Umar. Tafsir al-Quran al-Azim. Riyadh: Dar Taybah, 1999. [Original c. 1370 CE]
• Al-Qurtubi, Muhammad ibn Ahmad. Al-Jami' li Ahkam al-Quran. Cairo: Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyyah, 1964. [Original c. 1273 CE]
• Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. Jami' al-Bayan an Ta'wil Ay al-Quran. [Original c. 923 CE]
• Al-Zamakhshari, Mahmud ibn Umar. Al-Kashshaf. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Arabi, 1986. [Original c. 1134 CE]
• Shafi Usmani, Mufti Muhammad. Maariful Quran. 8 vols. Translated by Muhammad Hasan Askari and Muhammad Shamim; revised by Muhammad Taqi Usmani. Karachi: Maktaba-e-Darul-Uloom. [Urdu original, 20th century CE]
• Usmani, Mufti Muhammad Taqi. The Meanings of the Noble Qur'an with Explanatory Notes. Karachi: Maktaba Ma'ariful Quran.

Islamic Jurisprudence and Theology

• Al-Shafi'i, Muhammad ibn Idris. Al-Risala. Translated by Majid Khadduri. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1987. [Original c. 820 CE]
• Al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid. Ihya Ulum al-Din (Revival of the Religious Sciences). Beirut: Dar al-Ma'rifah, 2004. [Original c. 1097 CE]
• Ibn Rushd, Muhammad. Bidayat al-Mujtahid wa Nihayat al-Muqtasid. Cairo: Dar al-Hadith, 2004. [Original c. 1188 CE]
• Al-Nawawi, Yahya ibn Sharaf. Al-Minhaj Sharh Sahih Muslim. Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi, 1972. [Original c. 1277 CE]
• Ibn Qudamah, Muwaffaq al-Din. Al-Mughni. Riyadh: Dar Alam al-Kutub, 1997. [Original c. 1223 CE]
• Ibn Taymiyyah, Ahmad. Majmu' al-Fatawa. 37 vols. Riyadh: Dar Alam al-Kutub, 1991. [Original c. 1310–1328 CE]
• Al-Mawardi, Ali ibn Muhammad. Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah (The Ordinances of Government). Cairo: Dar al-Hadith, 2006. [Original c. 1058 CE]
• Shah Waliullah Dehlawi. Hujjat Allah al-Baligha. [Original 18th century CE]

Modern Academic Works

Peer-reviewed scholarship from university presses and established historians that forms the backbone of our modern analytical framework.

General Islamic History

• Hodgson, Marshall G.S. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization. 3 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.
• Lapidus, Ira M. A History of Islamic Societies. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
• Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. 3rd ed. London: Routledge, 2016.
• Berkey, Jonathan P. The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
• Hourani, Albert. A History of the Arab Peoples. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991.
• Donner, Fred M. The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981.
• Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
• Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah. The History of Islam. 3 vols. Riyadh: Darussalam. — a narrative history in the classical mould rather than a modern academic monograph, and used accordingly alongside the works above.

Early Caliphate and Conquests

• Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
• Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
• Kaegi, Walter E. Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
• Morony, Michael G. Iraq After the Muslim Conquest. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.
• Hawting, G. R. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2000.
• Rogerson, Barnaby. The Heirs of the Prophet Muhammad: Islam's First Century and the Origins of the Sunni-Shia Split. London: Little, Brown, 2006.

Islamic Law and Hadith Studies

• Hallaq, Wael B. The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
• Melchert, Christopher. The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law, 9th–10th Centuries CE. Leiden: Brill, 1997.
• Schacht, Joseph. An Introduction to Islamic Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964.
• Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 2003.
• Siddiqi, Muhammad Zubayr. Hadith Literature: Its Origin, Development and Special Features. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1993.
• Al-Azami, Muhammad Mustafa. Studies in Hadith Methodology and Literature. Indianapolis: American Trust Publications, 1977.
• Al-Azami, Muhammad Mustafa. The History of the Quranic Text: From Revelation to Compilation. Leicester: Islamic Academy, 2003.
• Ibn Abi Dawud, Abdullah. Kitab al-Masahif. Edited by Arthur Jeffery. Leiden: Brill, 1937. [Original c. 928 CE]
• Sayeed, Asma. Women and the Transmission of Religious Knowledge in Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
• Brown, Jonathan A.C. Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World. Oxford: Oneworld, 2009.

Philosophy, Theology and Learning

• Fakhry, Majid. A History of Islamic Philosophy. 3rd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
• Makdisi, George. The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981.
• Lyons, Jonathan. The House of Wisdom: How the Arabs Transformed Western Civilization. London: Bloomsbury, 2009.
• Winter, Tim, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

Sufism and the Sufi Orders

The works behind the encyclopaedia's coverage of the inward tradition and of the four orders that shaped religious life in South Asia and Central Asia.

• Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975.
• Schimmel, Annemarie. Islam in the Indian Subcontinent. Leiden: Brill, 1980.
• Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
• Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. A History of Sufism in India. 2 vols. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1978–1983.
• Böwering, Gerhard. “Češtīya.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica. — the critical account of the Chishti order, of Mu'in al-Din Chishti and Nizam al-Din Awliya, and of the doctrines of walaya and sama.
• Algar, Hamid. “Bahā'-al-Dīn Naqšband.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica. — the scholarly biography of the eponym of the Naqshbandiyya, with full citation of the early hagiographies.
• Sobieroj, Florian. “Jalāl-al-Dīn Abu'l-Qāsem Tabrīzī.” In Encyclopaedia Iranica. — for the mission that carried the Suhrawardi order to Multan.
• Nizami, K. A. “Chishtiyya.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed. Leiden: Brill.
• Lawrence, Bruce B., trans. Nizam ad-din Awliya: Morals for the Heart. New York: Paulist Press, 1992. — the Fawa'id al-Fu'ad in English.
• Friedmann, Yohanan. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi: An Outline of His Thought and a Study of His Image in the Eyes of Posterity. Montreal: McGill University Press, 1971.

Pilgrimage and the Holy Cities

• Peters, F.E. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.
• Peters, F.E. Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.
• Peters, F.E. Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. Albany: SUNY Press, 1994.

Regional Histories

• Jackson, Peter. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
• Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
• Insoll, Timothy. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
• Conrad, David C. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Chelsea House, 2005.
• Soucek, Svat. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
• Fierro, Maribel. Abd al-Rahman III: The First Cordoban Caliph. Oxford: Oneworld, 2005.
• Bosworth, C. Edmund. The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1996.
• Bosworth, C. Edmund. The Ghaznavids: Their Empire in Afghanistan and Eastern Iran, 994–1040. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1963.
• Nazim, Muhammad. The Life and Times of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931.
• Wink, André. Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Vol. 2, The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest. Leiden: Brill, 1997.
• Lal, K. S. History of the Khaljis, A.D. 1290–1320. Allahabad: Indian Press, 1950.
• Kumar, Sunil. The Emergence of the Delhi Sultanate, 1192–1286. New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2007.
• Eaton, Richard M. India in the Persianate Age, 1000–1765. London: Allen Lane, 2019.
• Irwin, Robert. The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate 1250–1382. London: Croom Helm, 1986.
• Panikkar, K. M. A History of Kerala, 1498–1801. Annamalainagar: The Annamalai University, 1960.
• Hasan, Mohibbul. History of Tipu Sultan. Calcutta and Dacca: The Bibliophile Ltd., 1951.
• Dale, Stephen Frederic. Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mappilas of Malabar, 1498–1922. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980.
• Panikkar, K. N. Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar, 1836–1921. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Prophetic Biography

• Lings, Martin. Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1983.
• Guillaume, Alfred, trans. The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955.
• Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1953.
• Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad at Medina. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956.
• Al-Mubarakpuri, Safi-ur-Rahman. The Sealed Nectar (Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum). Darussalam, 2002.
• As-Sallabi, Ali Muhammad. Ali ibn Abi Talib. 2 vols. Riyadh: Darussalam. (Also his volumes on Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab and Uthman ibn Affan.)
• Haykal, Muhammad Husayn. The Life of Muhammad. Translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi. Selangor: Islamic Book Trust, 2008.
• Akram, A.I. Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns. Riyadh: International Islamic Publishing House, 2004.
• Newby, Gordon Darnell. The Making of the Last Prophet: A Reconstruction of the Earliest Biography of Muhammad. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989.

Prophets in the Quran

• Wheeler, Brannon M. Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis. London: Continuum, 2002.
• Tottoli, Roberto. Biblical Prophets in the Quran and Muslim Literature. London: Routledge, 2002.
• Thackston, Wheeler M., trans. The Tales of the Prophets of al-Kisa'i. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1978.
• Firestone, Reuven. Journeys in Holy Lands: The Evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael Legends in Islamic Exegesis. Albany: SUNY Press, 1990.
• Renard, John. Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.

Islamic Science and Medicine

• Saliba, George. Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007.
• Al-Khalili, Jim. The House of Wisdom: How Arabic Science Saved Ancient Knowledge and Gave Us the Renaissance. New York: Penguin Press, 2011.
• Rashed, Roshdi, ed. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. 3 vols. London: Routledge, 1996.
• Pormann, Peter E., and Emilie Savage-Smith. Medieval Islamic Medicine. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press, 2007.
• Gutas, Dimitri. Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad. London: Routledge, 1998.
• King, David A. Astronomy in the Service of Islam. Leiden: Brill, 1993.
• Turner, Howard R. Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997.
• Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Science and Civilization in Islam. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968.

Al-Andalus and Islamic Spain

• Kennedy, Hugh. Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. London: Longman, 1996.
• Menocal, María Rosa. The Ornament of the World. Boston: Little, Brown, 2002.
• Catlos, Brian A. Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain. New York: Basic Books, 2018.
• Jayyusi, Salma Khadra, ed. The Legacy of Muslim Spain. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1992.
• Fletcher, Richard. Moorish Spain. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1992.

Ottoman, Mughal, and Safavid Empires

• Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. London: John Murray, 2005.
• İnalcık, Halil. The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300–1600. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973.
• Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
• Kafadar, Cemal. Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
• Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976–1977.
• Atiya, Aziz S. The Crusade of Nicopolis. London: Methuen, 1934.
• Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
• Savory, Roger. Iran Under the Safavids. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
• Manz, Beatrice Forbes. The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
• Truschke, Audrey. Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2017.
• Sarkar, Jadunath. History of Aurangzib. 5 vols. Calcutta: M.C. Sarkar & Sons, 1912–1924.
• Arnold, Sir Thomas W. The Caliphate. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924. — written by the Professor of Arabic at the University of London in the year the caliphate was abolished, and the closest scholarly account of what the office consisted of in the hands of the last caliph.
• Dalrymple, William. The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi, 1857. London: Bloomsbury, 2006. — drawn on for the Delhi court under Akbar Shah II and Bahadur Shah Zafar, and for the records of the British Residency there.

Islamic Art, Architecture, and Culture

• Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Architecture: Form, Function, and Meaning. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994.
• Bloom, Jonathan M., and Sheila S. Blair. Islamic Arts. London: Phaidon, 1997.
• Grabar, Oleg. The Formation of Islamic Art. Rev. ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987.
• Creswell, K. A. C. Early Muslim Architecture. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1932–1940.
• Habib, Mohammad. Hazrat Amir Khusrau of Delhi. Aligarh: Aligarh Muslim University Publications, 1927.
• Mirza, Mohammed Wahid. The Life and Works of Amir Khusrau. Lahore: Panjab University Oriental Publications, 1935.
• Amir Khusrau Memorial Volume. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1975.

African Islamic History

• Levtzion, Nehemia, and Randall L. Pouwels, eds. The History of Islam in Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000.
• Gomez, Michael A. African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018.
• Hunwick, John O. Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire. Leiden: Brill, 1999.
• Hogben, S.J. Emirates of Northern Nigeria. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.
• Falola, Toyin, and Ann Genova. Historical Dictionary of Nigeria. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2009.

Modern Islamic History

• Cleveland, William L., and Martin Bunton. A History of the Modern Middle East. 6th ed. Boulder: Westview Press, 2016.
• Hourani, Albert. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
• Schulze, Reinhard. A Modern History of the Islamic World. London: I.B. Tauris, 2000.
• Minault, Gail. The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.
• Hardy, Peter. The Muslims of British India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
• Jalal, Ayesha. Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850. London: Routledge, 2000.

The South Asian Reformist Movements

These works underpin the encyclopaedia's coverage of Deoband, the Barelvi and Ahl-i Hadis tendencies, and the scholars of the reformist seminaries. Metcalf and Zaman between them are among the most frequently cited works on the site.

• Metcalf, Barbara Daly. Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982.
• Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002.
• Ahmad, Irfan. Islamism and Democracy in India: The Transformation of Jamaat-e-Islami. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.
• Rizvi, Sayyid Mahboob. History of the Dar al-Ulum Deoband. 2 vols. Translated by Murtaz Husain F. Quraishi. Deoband: Idara-e Ihtemam, 1981.
• Kandhlawi, Muhammad Yusuf. Hayatus Sahabah (The Lives of the Companions). 3 vols.

Women in Islam

• Stowasser, Barbara Freyer. Women in the Qur'an, Traditions, and Interpretation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
• Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.
• Nadwi, Mohammad Akram. Al-Muhaddithat: The Women Scholars in Islam. Oxford: Interface Publications, 2007.
• Spellberg, D.A. Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of Aisha bint Abi Bakr. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.
• Ghadanfar, Mahmood Ahmad. Great Women of Islam. Riyadh: Darussalam, 2001.
• Abbott, Nabia. Two Queens of Baghdad: Mother and Wife of Harun al-Rashid. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946.
• Mernissi, Fatima. The Forgotten Queens of Islam. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.
• Jones, David E. Women Warriors: A History. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2000.
• Van Doorn-Harder, Pieternella. Women Shaping Islam: Indonesian Women Reading the Qur'an. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006.
• Golden Stories of Sayyida Khadijah. Riyadh: Darussalam.

Karbala, Ashura, and Shia Studies

• Ayoub, Mahmoud. Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism. The Hague: Mouton, 1978.
• Aghaie, Kamran Scot. The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi'i Symbols and Rituals in Modern Iran. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004.
• Chelkowski, Peter, ed. Ta'ziyeh: Ritual and Drama in Iran. New York: New York University Press, 1979.
• Pinault, David. Horse of Karbala: Muslim Devotional Life in India. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
• Jafri, S. Husain M. The Origins and Early Development of Shi'a Islam. London: Longman, 1979.
• Halm, Heinz. Shi'ism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004.

Islamic Family Law and Adoption

• Powers, David S. Muhammad Is Not the Father of Any of Your Men: The Making of the Last Prophet. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.

Reference Atlases

• Atlas of the Islamic Conquests. Riyadh: Darussalam.
• Atlas of the Quran. Riyadh: Darussalam.

Reference Encyclopaedias

• Bearman, P.J., et al., eds. Encyclopaedia of Islam. 2nd ed. 12 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005.
• McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. Encyclopaedia of the Quran. 5 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2001–2006.
• Esposito, John L., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. 6 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
• Glassé, Cyril. The New Encyclopedia of Islam. 4th ed. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.
• Yarshater, Ehsan, et al., eds. Encyclopaedia Iranica. New York: Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation, 1982– . — the source of the scholarly accounts of the Chishti and Naqshbandi orders cited above.